Please define and provide one example each for the following logical fallacies. Please do not cut and paste your definitions. Instead, put them into your own words.
Ad Hominem
Ad Hominem Tu Quoque
Appeal to Authority
Appeal to Belief
Appeal to Common Practice
Appeal to Consequences of a Belief
Appeal to Emotion
Appeal to Fear
Appeal to Flattery
Appeal to Novelty
Appeal to Pity
Appeal to Popularity
Appeal to Ridicule
Appeal to Spite
Appeal to Tradition
Bandwagon
Begging the Question
Biased Sample
Burden of Proof
Circumstantial Ad Hominem
Composition
Confusing Cause and Effect
Division
False Dilemma
Gambler's Fallacy
Genetic Fallacy
Guilt By Association
Hasty Generalization
Ignoring A Common Cause
Middle Ground
Misleading Vividness
Personal Attack
Poisoning the Well
Post Hoc
Questionable Cause
Red Herring
Relativist Fallacy
Slippery Slope
Special Pleading
Spotlight
Straw Man
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Middle Ground- Area of no definite position or compromise between an extreme subject.
EX. Presidential election (any election really) neither party really wants to make a definite statement on a “hot topic” for fear of losing votes. They would rather be in the middle (Middle Ground) in order to please everyone and not lose votes.
Bandwagon- It can mean either one of two things
1st the literal- a wagon used to carry a band in a parade (or some sort of get together)
2nd is to take part in something that has become fashionable or something that will become successful. Jumping on the bandwagon.
EX. All her friends have it so she wants to jump on the bandwagon and have it also. Dealing with clothing “everyone else has it” mentality Its suddenly cool so I want it too.
1) Ad Hominem – a personal attack, if someone changes the topic of a debate and uses irrelevant subjects to go after the other person’s credibility. This technique is often used to avoid facing the topic at hand.
2) Ad Hominem Tu Quoque – in an effort to defend oneself the debater will respond by turning the critique back against the accuser. If a person refuses to answer a question and replies with a question to the other individual that is phrased in such a way that it will refute the other’s integrity no matter how they answer the question.
3) Appeal to Authority-When an authority of one subject is cited for their belief on a subject that they are not a qualified to be an authority on. An example listed was if someone were to cite Einstein’s religious convictions as the “gospel truth” yet in reality he is only a scientific authority not an expert in religion.
4) Appeal to Belief-when the majority has a particular way of thinking or belief of the way something should be or perception the rest of the crowd will usually follow the consistent thought process. The moral majority in the past felt like the drinking age should be raised to twenty one however now that may change due to a different perception.
5) Appeal to Common Practice-when a large group decides to follow the same procedures others will do the same. Depending on the era certain styles of music will be popular thus creating a synonymous audience.
6) Appeal to Consequences of a Belief-belief that certain actions will either have positive or negative effects. Some believe that smoking cigarettes will cause cancer that may result in having some people stop smoking.
7) Appeal to Emotion-an attempt to appeal to one’s emotion to gain acceptance of the belief to change their viewpoint. By appealing to the benefits of charitable causes nonprofit agencies can raise a lot of funds.
8) Appeal to Fear-a more forceful approach to appealing to one’s emotion. The professor said, “If you don’t pass the test you will not pass the class.”
9) Appeal to Flattery-an attempt to earn the respect of another by being nice. Politicians will appeal to a certain assembly of people by complimenting their way of life.
10) Appeal to Novelty-to create the allure of something that is new is better. If a company implements computers into its business it will operate better. This can be a fallacy because the time and money invested may outweigh the benefit in some cases.
11) Appeal to Pity-to evoke the sympathy of an audience in an effort to coerce an opinion. A student may ask to make up an exam if he or she had missed it due to an illness.
12) Appeal to Popularity-to justify one’s actions by basing the reasoning on the actions of others. “It is ok to drive to speed on the interstate because everyone else does.”
13) Appeal to Ridicule-to sway a crowd by making fun of another. Often in politics, propaganda, such as political cartoons may be used to tarnish to opponent.
14) Appeal to Spite-when one tries to formulate an opinion of another out of another. Some companies may prefer to do business with another business that does not have a union because of how a previous strike may had adverse effects on the procuring business.
15) Appeal to Tradition-using traditions or cultures to make an appeal. Stores now offer Christmas items earlier and earlier each year because they know people will prefer to buy the holiday based materials when they are not rushed during the season itself.
16) Bandwagon-following the crowd. People will jump on the bandwagon because of a popular belief.
17) Begging the Question-responding to a question by restating the question. When asked the question the candidate, the candidate rephrased the question for clarity yet never answered, only to talk in circles.
18) Biased Sample-making a generalization without all of the facts. If you test one strand of spaghetti to check to see if all of the spaghetti is cooked this may not be an effective method.
19) Burden of Proof-the obligation to legally prove a point. During a court case the prosecution carries the burden to prove the point.
20) Circumstantial Ad Hominem-by trying to dismiss an argument by attacking the group of people who stand behind their beliefs. Just because a person is of a different nationality of a country does not mean that they cannot be an authority on another country.
21) Composition-when several parts make up a whole. Just because the cells that make up the body are invisible, it does not mean that a body is invisible.
22) Confusing Cause and Effect-to consider certain effects are the results of certain actions. A lot of people’s superstitions determine their behavior.
23) Division-by grouping items or individuals together and making a blanket statement. Since the universe has been around for fifteen billion years and is made up of molecules then all of the molecules are also fifteen billion years old.
24) False Dilemma-when an argument offers only false answers. If we don’t drill for more oil we will be in an energy crisis.
25) Gambler's Fallacy-when one believes that statistics will always take precedence over random patterns. In the movie “21” if a table was considered to be favoring the patrons the players would gamble at that particular table.
26) Genetic Fallacy-when an idea is based on irrelevant history. I decided not to buy a lottery ticket once because I never won, that day the next person in line won 26 billion dollars.
27) Guilt By Association-discrediting one by the company they keep. It cannot be said that all Washington Redskin fans are Washington Bullets fans
28) Hasty Generalization-jumping to a conclusion. If you observe a vehicle from a particular state drive recklessly, it would not be correct to say that everyone from that state drives like “…*!&#…”
29) Ignoring A Common Cause-assuming that because one thing causes another does not mean they are regularly associated. Someone may think they are catching a cold because they have been sneezing uncontrollably, when actually the hay field in which they are standing is providing the cause.
30) Middle Ground-to consider the middle of to extremes to be a correct point to give value to would not be an accurate measurement. One home sold at an unreasonably low price due to foreclosure thus all of the similar homes values should be reduced.
31) Misleading Vividness-to base a blanket opinion as a whole is not enough information to draw a conclusion. A person saw a plane crash one time and decided that airplane travel was not safe.
32) Personal Attack-attacking a person in an abusive manner to dispute the others point of view. That person’s point of view cannot be accurate because they were drinking alcohol at the time.
33) Poisoning the Well-an attempt to discredit a person by slander so the person in question has no credibility. Before I turn the floor over to my opponent, keep in mind that if you vote is not for me you will not be acting in the best interest of the general public.
34) Post Hoc-if one believes that a certain action will always have the same result. When gambling I always carry my good luck charm.
35) Questionable Cause-assuming that if one effect is the result of a cause when associated on a regular basis prompting a conclusion.
36) Red Herring-to create a distraction or lost leader. The store advertised certain items for sale in hope that the customers would over pay for additional items.
37) Relativist Fallacy-to dispute a fact just because it doesn’t apply to everyone. Some people are in good health even though they do not exercise, so they might not think that excising is necessary.
38) Slippery Slope-a belief that one event will follow another. At the rate gas has increased in the past four years nobody will be able to afford to drive in the near future.
39) Special Pleading-creating rules and principles that every one must follow but that person feels they are exempt. Politicians often create regulations only to leave loopholes that make them exempt.
40) Spotlight-to assume that all members of a group behave the same as one particular person. One may assume that New York is completely concrete from each side of the state line to the other, when actually most of it is made up of farmland.
41) Straw Man-to create a false position to draw attention from one party. Since one particular political candidate was not in favor of funding one particular defense project it was perceived that the candidate did not have the country’s defense in his or her best interest.
Ad Hominem- attacking someones character by appealing to prejudices and emotions.
Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally wrong."
Dave: "Of course you would say that, you're a priest."
Ad Hominem Tu Quoque- a person giving inconsistent claims and being hypocritical to some extent.
Dave: "I think it is wrong to use animals for food or clothing."
Bill: "But you are wearing a leather jacket and you have a roast beef sandwich in your hand!"
Appeal to Authority- using and authoritative figure to back your argument.
Bill: "I think that I'm right because Einstein supports my theory."
Appeal to Belief- people believe its true so it must be true.
The Boogieman must exist because 90% of people believe in him.
Appeal to Common Practice- something is common so it must be true.
People say that cheating on tests is wrong. But everyone does it, so it's okay.
Appeal to Consequences of a Belief- wishful thinking that if the belief isn't true something bad would happen.
It can never happen to me. If I believed it could, I could never sleep soundly at night.
Appeal to Emotion favorable emotions are associated with it so it must be true.
The new PowerPlus computer gives you the power you need. If you buy one, people will envy your power.
Appeal to Fear- using fear to make people do or think what you want.
You will help me or you'll get in trouble.
Appeal to Flattery- using compliments to get what you want.
Hello teacher you look beautiful today, now about my grades.
Appeal to Novelty- something that is new is better.
My car is better because it's new.
Appeal to Pity- use pity to get someone to give you and advantage.
I really need this A, or I'll be grounded
Appeal to Popularity- something is popular so it must be better/true.
These shoes are popular, so they must be better.
Appeal to Ridicule- using ridicule to make something false.
Give to the school? Sure, when pigs can fly.
Appeal to Spite- when spite is used instead of evidence.
Bill: "I think thats a good idea!"
George: "Have you forgotten that she messed it up last time?"
Appeal to Tradition- because something has been always been done one way it must be true/better.
We have always done this so it has to be the best way
Bandwagon- a trend that gains popular support.
These new shoes are cool and everyone is getting them.
Begging the Question- assuring someone that something is true without evidence.
I assure you I'm trustworthy.
Biased Sample- using a small sample to assume that it pertains to all elements of that sample.
50% of people in DC bike to work so 50% of all people bike to work.
Burden of Proof- you cant prove that something is false so it has to be true.
How do you know god exists? No one can prove that he doesn't.
Circumstantial Ad Hominem- saying someone isn't right because there position requires them to hold that view.
Of course your against drinking your the head of the AAA meeting.
Composition- parts of something have certain elements so the whole part must have the same elements.
You like potatoes and pudding so you must like potato pudding
Confusing Cause and Effect- when two things generally occur together so if one is happening the other must happen.
Depression can cause sickness, so all sick people have to be depressed
Division- the whole has certain aspects so every part of it must have those aspects.
The ball is blue so all the atoms in a ball are blue.
False Dilemma- something is either true or false, if its not false it must be true.
If your not a vegetarian you like beef.
Gambler's Fallacy- something that has been occurring a lot lately is bound to stop happening, or vice versa.
Its about time I won so I'm going to bet,
Genetic Fallacy- the credibility of something is only based off the objects past.
He is going to be an alcoholic, because his parents where alcoholics.
Guilt By Association- choosing a side because you don't like a person thats on the other side.
Even though that team looks good I will go to this team cause they have Steven Fleming on there team.
Hasty Generalization- a certain amount of people who are sampled are generalized.
Sally hates men because one of her boyfriends was a jerk to her.
Ignoring A Common Cause one things is caused by the other because they are usually associated with each other.
I woke up with a fever then i got red spots. So the fever must have caused the spots.
Middle Ground- when two sides are presented so the average must be correct.
I think i know everything and he thinks i know nothing so i must be somewhere in-between.
Misleading Vividness- because of an extreme and rare situation that could happen anywhere happened you have a prejudice towards it.
After the VT shooting people didn't want to go to school there.
Personal Attack- using a personal attack to discredit someone.
John has a proposal to remove vending machines, and another student says we shouldn't because hes a freshman.
Poisoning the Well- using information to poison the view about someone.
Don't listen to him, he's a jerk.
Post Hoc- when an event occurs before another, therefor the first event is the cause of the second.
I was loosing until i was given a ring so the ring must be lucky
Questionable Cause- two things happen often so when the first happens the second will happen.
Red Herring- interrupting a topic with a "similar topic" and abandoning the first.
We were discussing the economy when Jack interrupted with information on the stock market.
Relativist Fallacy- when a fact is stated and someone says that it may be true for the other person but not for them.
People who over eat get fat, that may be true for you but not for me
Slippery Slope- when a person asserts that an event must follow another without any argument of why.
If i get and f the world is going to collapse!
Special Pleading- when a person holds someone else to a certain standard and thinks themselves exempt.
Bill: "Turn off your radio its giving me a headache."
George: "Well maybe i want to listen to my music, you ever think of that?"
Spotlight- when someone has a very closed view on something because of there assumptions.
Bill: "In never want to go to Virginia, every time i see it on the TV people are getting shot."
Straw Man- when someones full idea is ignored and is manipulated to what the other person wants.
Bill: "I think we shouldn't build nukes."
John: "Are you saying you want us to be vulnerable to nuclear attacks?"
Ad Homonym - attacking someone’s character rather than answering his question/argument.
Ex: political commercials bashing the opponent rather than talking about the real problems at hand.
Ad Homonym Tu Quoque – being a hypocrite.
Ex: the people from PETA eating a burger
Appeal to Authority – when a person of authority tries to explain something that isn’t in their expertise.
Ex: the pope explaining government law.
Appeal to Belief – something that people believe to be true without proof so it must be true.
Ex: god
Appeal to Common Practice – people believing that a common action is correct.
Ex: smoking even though people know its bad for them.
Appeal to Consequences of a Belief – people believing in something, fearing that there is a negative consequence for not believing in it
Ex: god
Appeal to Emotion – manipulating someone into believing something is true
Ex: The Nazi party convincing the public the Jews are responsible for the nations problems.
Appeal to Fear- using fears to get something accomplished or to convince people into something.
Ex: a political official scaring people into obedience.
Appeal to Flattery- using flattery to convince someone into thinking something is true or to get that person to do something.
Ex: sucking up to your boss to get a raise.
Appeal to Novelty- the belief that because something is new that it is better than something else.
Ex: Windows Vista saying that it is better than XP.
Appeal to Pity- using pity to convince someone that something is true or to convince the person into doing something.
Ex: I should receive an 'A' in this class. After all, if I don't get an 'A' I won't get to join PTK.
Appeal to Popularity- this suggests that an idea must be true because it is widely believed in
Ex: god
Appeal to Ridicule - The Appeal to Ridicule is a fallacy in which ridicule or mockery is substituted for evidence in an argument.
Ex: Support the ERA? Sure, when the women start paying for the drinks.
Appeal to Spite - cases in which a claim that evokes a feeling of spite or malice can serve as legitimate evidence.
Ex: Bill: "I think that Jane did a great job this year. I'm going to nominate her for the award."
Dave: "Have you forgotten last year? Remember that she didn't nominate you last year."
Bill: "You're right. I'm not going to nominate her."
Appeal to Tradition - a fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older.
Ex: people thinking that doing math on paper is better than using a calculator.
Bandwagon – to join in something simply because it is popular not because it is right or wrong.
Ex: elementary students collecting Pokemon cards because it’s the “cool” thing to do.
Begging the Question – going around In circles without a solid conclusion
Ex: Bill: "God must exist."
Jill: "How do you know."
Bill: "Because the Bible says so."
Jill: "Why should I believe the Bible?"
Bill: "Because the Bible was written by God."
Biased Sample - when a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is biased or prejudiced in some manner.
Ex: if I wanted to know what the public thought about gun control laws but I took the survey at an NRA meeting.
Burden of Proof – the inability to prove that something is false so it must be true.
Ex: god can’t be disproved so he must exist.
Circumstantial Ad Homonym - saying someone isn't right because there position requires him or her to hold that view.
Ex: Of course your against drinking your the head of AA.
Composition - parts of something have certain elements so the whole part must have the same elements.
Ex: You like macaroni and salad so you must like macaroni salad.
Confusing Cause and Effect - when two things generally occur together so if one is happening the other must happen.
Ex: smoking can cause sickness; so all sick people must be smokers.
Division - the whole situation has certain aspects so every part of the situation must have those aspects to it.
Ex: The dog is brown; therefore all of its insides must be brown.
False Dilemma - something is either true or false, if its not false it must be true.
Ex: god exists; it can’t be disproved so it must be true.
Gambler's Fallacy - when one believes that statistics will always take precedence over random patterns.
Ex: I just won at Russian roulette so I should win next time.
Genetic Fallacy - the credibility of something is only based off the objects past.
Ex: you are going to become a dunk because your dad was.
Guilt By Association – being stereotyped as being something your not because you are around certain people.
Ex: You are a teenager so you must be a troublemaker.
Hasty Generalization- because one thing is true the rest should be just like it.
Ex: that person smokes marijuana and he never accomplishes anything so everyone who smokes marijuana must be a slacker.
Ignoring A Common Cause- assuming that because one thing causes another does not mean they are regularly associated.
Ex: I got a cold and diarrhea so the cold must have gave me diarrhea.
Middle Ground – when multiple values are presented so the average of them must be true.
Ex: I think I’m a genius and she thinks I’m stupid so I must be somewhere in between.
Misleading Vividness – because something rare happens you have a preconceived notion about it.
Ex: the terrorists hijacked a plane so people stopped flying.
Personal Attack- using knowledge about someone to discredit them or harm their reputation.
Ex: political smear commercials.
Poisoning the Well - an attempt to discredit a person by slander so the person in question has no credibility.
Ex: don’t date her; I heard she’s a cheater.
Post Hoc- when someone believes that a certain action will always have the same result.
Ex: when a tornado appears there is always hail.
Questionable Cause- when one thing happens this should happen right after it.
Ex: when a person gets cancer they die shortly afterwards.
Red Herring- when discussing one topic and jumping to a similar topic without ever going back to the original.
Ex: a store has a sale on a product but hopes that people will buy more than just that.
Relativist Fallacy- to argue about something because it doesn’t apply to everyone.
Ex: some health people don’t exercise so those people must think that exercise isn’t important.
Slippery Slope- a belief that when one thing happens another should follow like a domino effect.
Ex: the earth is running low on gas so the price of gas should rise.
Special Pleading- when people hold someone else to a certain standard and think themselves exempt.
Ex: a cop believing that because he is a cop that they are above the law.
Spotlight- to think that everyone in a certain group behave the same as one person in the group.
Ex: there is a lot of crime in New York so I don’t want to go there.
Straw Man- to create a false position to draw attention from one party.
Ex: I am a genius so you should replace Albert Einstein with me in the history books.
Ad Hominem “against the person”
Ex: A priest who is believes abortion is morally wrong, but I don’t.
Ad Hominem Tu quoque “you too”
Ex: I am against people who smoke in restaurants, but I smoke a pack a day.
Appeal to Authority “misuse of or questionable authority”
Ex: I’m going to win the lottery because my psychic told me the lucky numbers.
Appeal to Belief “Those who believe something is true, is really true”
Ex: Majority of Americans believe in god; therefore, god is real.
Appeal to Common Practice “what we do isn’t always right”
Ex: Cheating on tests is wrong. We all do it, so it is okay.
Appeal to Consequences of a Belief “wishful thinking”
Ex: God must exist. If he didn’t exist, the world would be a horrible place.
Appeal to Emotion “what I approve of is true”
Ex: Hydroxycut diet pills will help you lose weight fast! Just look at me!
Appeal to Fear “scare tactics”
Ex: If you don’t believe in god, you will go to hell.
Appeal to Flattery “apple polishing”
Ex: You’re the best mom in the world! By the way, can you buy me a car?
Appeal to Novelty “newer is better”
Ex: A made up advertisement
Appeal to Pity “create sympathy”
Ex: Please don’t fire me! I just moved into a new house!
Appeal to Popularity “favorable emotions”
Ex: If they are for Barack Obama, I am for him too.
Appeal to Ridicule “appeal to mockery”
Ex: Sure he’ll get an A in English, whenever he learns how to write! Hahaha!
Appeal to Spite “what goes around comes back around”
Ex: I want to vote for you, but you didn’t vote for me last time. So I’m not going to vote for you.
Appeal to Tradition “old ways are best”
Ex: Our government is the best. It has been around for over 200 years.
Bandwagon “peer pressure”
Ex: Go for the Boston Celtics, they are the best!
Begging the Question “circular reasoning”
Ex: The belief in god is universal. After all, everyone believes in god.
Biased Sample “loaded statistics”
Ex: A survey will determine if she is or isn’t a great teacher.
Burden of Proof “appeal to ignorance”
Ex: You cannot prove that god doesn’t exist, so he does.
Circumstantial Ad Hominem “false attack”
Ex: Of course I won’t vote for McCain. After all, I am a democrat.
Composition “several parts make up a whole”
Ex: Trucks use more fuel than cars; therefore, truck owners spend way more money on gas.
Confusing Cause and Effect “questionable cause”
Ex: People who are severely ill are usually depressed and angry. So a good and cheery attitude will keep you healthy.
Division “every part of the whole is the same as the whole”
Ex: The car is blue; therefore, everything in the car is blue.
False Dilemma “black and white thinking”
Ex: Decision: Either you decide that you can afford the stereo, or you will have to do without music for a while.
Gambler’s Fallacy “Statistics over random patterns”
Ex: I will bet on the blue horse because he always wins.
Genetic Fallacy “credibility based on the past”
Ex: My parents raised me to believe in god, so he must exist.
Guilt By Association “Bad company”
Ex: you are an ex con so you like to commit crimes.
Hasty Generalization “leaping to a conclusion”
Ex: My first time in Mexico I saw ugly women, so all women in Mexico are ugly.
Ignoring A Common Cause “questionable cause”
Ex: I wake up with a fever and find rashes on my skin. Therefore, the fever caused the rashes.
Middle Ground “moderation“
Ex: Some believe god is all powerful. Others do not believe god exists. Therefore, it seems reasonable to accept somewhere in the middle that god is only very powerful.
Misleading Vividness “dramatic events cause preconceived notions”
Ex: My HP computer crashed. Therefore, I will not buy an HP computer anymore.
Personal Attack “abusive attack on a person”
Ex: John McCain is a former POW. So don’t vote for him because he seeks revenge.
Poisoning the Well “discrediting by unfavorable information”
Ex: Don’t listen to him, he’s a scoundrel.
Post Hoc “false cause”
Ex: I’ve been losing at the casino. But ever since I found this lucky quarter, I’ve been winning.
Questionable Cause “one thing happens, another should follow”
Ex: A chain letter is broken. Therefore, something bad should happen.
Red Herring “wild good chase”
Ex: A vote for tax cuts but also consider votes for spending on medication.
Relativist Fallacy “not applicable to everyone”
Ex: Just because he got cancer from smoking doesn’t mean I’m going to get cancer.
Slippery Slope “domino effect”
Ex: More and more troops are being sent to die in Iraq.
Special Pleading “certain standards only apply”
Ex: You can’t wear your shoes in my house, only I can. It’s my house.
Spotlight “All in a certain group are the same”
Ex: Gays act feminine. You can’t be gay because you don’t act feminine.
Straw Man “False positioning”
Ex: We want to end the war in Iraq. Others feel that if that happens, we won’t be able to get their oil.
Ad Hominem is a defense mechanism consisting of attacking or appealing to the person rather than addressing the contents of their argument.
Ad Hominem tu quoque states that the person making the argument has did something inconsistent with their argument.
Appeal to Authority is a fallacy argument. It bases the truth on the knowledge of those speaking it. It is an argument of logic.
Appeal to Belief is another fallacy argument that states if the masses believe it, it is true.
Appeal to Common Practice believes that the argument is correct because this is the way we’ve always done it.
Appeal to Consequences of a belief. An argument that is considered true or false based on the outcome, either desirable or otherwise.
Appeal to Emotion Argument based off of emotion rather than truth or fact.
Appeal to fear when a speaker uses fear to influence their specific point.
Appeal to flattery when a person uses flattery and excessive compliments to win their point.
Appeal to Novelty When a person claims that an idea or proposal is correct just because it is new or improved.
Appeal to Pity when a speaker tries to win support by playing off the others’ feelings of guilt or pity.
Appeal to Popularity same as appeal to belief.
Appeal to ridicule when the opponents point is shown in a joking, or embarrassing light.
Appeal to spite when a person tries to win an argument by exploiting feelings of bitterness
Appeal to tradition is the same as appeal to common practice
Bandwagon If many believe it, it is so. Copycat behavior.
Begging the Question refers to an argument based on questionable status.
Biased Sample a statistical sample in where more types of people are included than others.
Burden of proof an obligation to prove allegations.
Ad hominem Circumstantial Playing on the bias of the other person
Composition is the belief that one has something solely based on its parts.
Confusing cause and effect Informal fallacies where a cause is incorrectly identified.
Division same as composition
False Dilemma a fallacy where only two alternatives are viewed but in fact other options exist.
Gamblers fallacy a false belief that if an object derives from its path they are likely to be evened out in future events.
Genetic fallacy where a conclusion is used based only on the merits of someone’s origin rather than current fact.
Guilt by association if an argument attacks similar interests in others they are guilty as well.
Hasty Generalization is reaching a generalization based on insufficient evidence.
Middle Ground states that a compromise between two arguments is the answer.
Misleading Vividness is describing in vivid detail an event that may be misleading, but used to paint a very memorable psychological picture.
Personal attack when a person uses an argument in attempt to discredit their opponent.
Poisoning the well when information is leaked to the crowd with the intent to discredit or harm the speaker.
Post hoc after the event
Questionable Cause same as confusing cause and effect
Red Herring proving ones point by using irrelevant arguments
Relativitist Fallacy argument saying that what is right for one person is not necessarily right for another.
Slippery Slope states that an event can set off a chain of undesirable events and continue on.
Special Pleading an attempt to site something without proper justification
Spotlight important
Straw Man is deliberately overstating your opponent’s position
Day 6 post 2
Please define and provide one example each for the following logical fallacies. Please do not cut and paste your definitions. Instead, put them into your own words.
Ad Hominem- when someone that is arguing with another person starts making the argument personal instead of what it is actually about.
EXAMPLE: The Braves may be a bad team this year but you drive an ugly car.
Ad Hominem Tu Quoque- Helping yourself out by turning the tables on the other person.
EXAMPLE: If someone asks you someting and you ask them something back without answering.
Appeal to Authority: Making a reader see the way something is in a different way than they did before.
EXAMPLE: When you get to the end of the book you will see the person is a little bit luckier, they don’t always lose.
Appeal to Belief- Thinking that if many people think that something has happened or is true than it is.
EXAMPLE: Everyone thinks that the Cowboys are the best football team, so they are.
Appeal to Common Practice- if it is common for something to happen then it is true.
EXAMPLE: It’s common for people to skip school; therefore it is okay to do it.
Appeal to Consequences of a Belief- Thinking the worst if something doesn’t happen the way it’s supposed to.
EXAMPLE: If the parachute doesn’t deploy then I might hit the ground.
Appeal to Emotion- If you have a feeling that something is true then it is.
EXAPLE: I feel like I’m going to win in poker tonight.
Appeal to Fear- Trying to scare someone into doing what you want.
EXAMPLE: If you don’t make me a sandwich I’m going eat all of your brownies.
Appeal to Flattery- complimenting in order to get something done.
EXAMPLE: Wow! You look great; you should take me out to eat tonight.
Appeal to Novelty- Thinking that all new things are better than the old things.
EXAMPLE: I have the limited edition DVD; it’s better than the other one.
Appeal to Pity- Making someone pity you so that they will do what you want them to do.
EXAMPLE: I just broke my foot you should make me a pizza.
Appeal to Popularity- Assuming that the popular choice for something is the right choice to make.
EXAMPLE: Everyone knows that Barak Obama is going to win the election.
Appeal to Ridicule- Making the other person’s point of view look stupid compared to yours.
EXAMPLE: You thought that someone would beat Phelps? That was stupid.
Appeal to Spite- Even after everything is said and done you should still do what I want.
EXAMPLE: Even though I have ten dollars you should let me borrow twenty more.
Appeal to Tradition- if you traditionally do something it will happen the same way:
EXAMPLE: If you jump over the baselines before you walk on the field you will win the game.
Bandwagon- When everyone is doing something because everyone else is.
EXAMPLE: Since the Patriots were undefeated everyone likes them.
Begging the Question- Proving something true by showing the outcome of something.
EXAMPLE: How do you think that we got here? We had to come from somewhere
Biased Sample- A sample where not all information is given for a certain category.
EXAMPLE: The Dolphins and Patriots are both good teams, because they both won at least one game.
Burden of Proof- Proving something right in court.
EXAMPLE: You were there on the night of September 1, 2008, therefore you committed the crime.
Circumstantial Ad Hominem- When the circumstances decide whether or not someone thinks that you are able to do what is to be done.
EXAMPLE: How could you play basketball? You are four feet nothing.
Composition- Creating works of literature.
EXAMPLE: He wrote a book about himself.
Confusing Cause and Effect- Thinking that something has happened because something else has happened.
EXAMPLE: You are going to go broke because you lost the first hand of poker.
Division- If something is all true then it can be halfway true also.
EXAMPLE: It is raining right now. It just started raining a little while ago.
False Dilemma- Is another name for a trick question.
EXAMPLE: What color is the American Flag, Green, Orange, Purple, or Brown?
Gambler's Fallacy- If the probability of something happening is high then it will happen.
EXAMPLE: The sky is pitch black, it will rain soon.
Genetic Fallacy- The conclusion is based on a person’s background rather than the right way.
EXAMPLE: The Cowboy’s are the best football team because I’ve liked them since I was born.
Guilt By Association- When you get in trouble for someone else’s problem by being there with them when they did it.
EXAMPLE: Bobby robbed a bank and Tim was in the car, not knowing what he was doing, but they both got charged with armed robbery.
Hasty Generalization- Making a large conclusion based on the statistics of a topic.
EXAMPLE: The Chiefs are the rated as the underdog, therefore they will lose.
Ignoring A Common Cause- When one thing causes another to happen because they are associated with each other.
EXAMPLE: Since Billy was on Bob’s team, they lost the match.
Middle Ground- When the correct answer is a compromise.
EXAMPLE: We can just split the money evenly 50-50.
Misleading Vividness- Going in to full detail to get the point across.
EXAMPLE: The mountain is tall, steep, and very treacherous you don’t want to climb up it by yourself.
Personal Attack- The same as an ad Hominem.
EXAMPLE: The Braves may be a bad team but your car is ugly.
Poisoning the Well- Using information that hasn’t been looked into fully to discredit someone else.
EXAMPLE: Barak Obama is a Muslim, so he is a terrorist.
Post Hoc- Belief that when something happens it happens because of what happened before hand.
EXAMPLE: The ball team hit a homerun, because Johnny hit a double earlier.
Questionable Cause- Concluding that something happens when two things are usually associated with each other.
EXAMPLE: When Timmy didn’t send the chain letter he broke his leg, so it is the letters fault, it jinxed him.
Red Herring- When a new topic is made in order to change the current one.
EXAMPLE: Eric tripped, so he pointed to the sky and said look at that bird so no one would see what happened.
Relativist Fallacy- When something can be true for one person and not the other.
EXAMPLE: The mile run is easy for me to run because were in shape, but Tommy is not in shape and can’t run at all!
Slippery Slope- Thinking that everything happens for a reason.
EXAMPLE: Joey won the lottery because it was fate.
Special Pleading- Trying to make your side of an argument look better by leaving out key details about it.
EXAMPLE: I have the fastest car in the West (Even though it doesn’t run).
Spotlight- Thinking that certain group gets all of the media attention.
EXAMPLE: The basketball players are always on the news.
Straw Man- Ignoring a person’s point of view and assuming them to have a different opinion than they do.
EXAMPLE: You say you like pizza but you really like cookies.
1) Ad Hominem – a personal attack, if someone changes the topic of a debate and uses irrelevant subjects to go after the other person’s credibility. This technique is often used to avoid facing the topic at hand. 2) Ad Hominem Tu Quoque – in an effort to defend oneself the debater will respond by turning the critique back against the accuser. If a person refuses to answer a question and replies with a question to the other individual that is phrased in such a way that it will refute the other’s integrity no matter how they answer the question. 3) Appeal to Authority-When an authority of one subject is cited for their belief on a subject that they are not a qualified to be an authority on. An example listed was if someone were to cite Einstein’s religious convictions as the “gospel truth” yet in reality he is only a scientific authority not an expert in religioan. 4) Appeal to Belief-when the majority has a particular way of thinking or belief of the way something should be or perception the rest of the crowd will usually follow the consistent thought process. The moral majority in the past felt like the drinking age should be raised to twenty one however now that may change due to a different perception. 5) Appeal to Common Practice-when a large group decides to follow the same procedures others will do the same. Depending on the era certain styles of music will be popular thus creating a synonymous audience. 6) Appeal to Consequences of a Belief-belief that certain actions will either have positive or negative effects. Some believe that smoking cigarettes will cause cancer that may result in having some people stop smoking. 7) Appeal to Emotion-an attempt to appeal to one’s emotion to gain acceptance of the belief to change their viewpoint. By appealing to the benefits of charitable causes nonprofit agencies can raise a lot of funds. 8) Appeal to Fear-a more forceful approach to appealing to one’s emotion. The professor said, “If you don’t pass the test you will not pass the class.” 9) Appeal to Flattery-an attempt to earn the respect of another by being nice. Politicians will appeal to a certain assembly of people by complimenting their way of life. 10) Appeal to Novelty-to create the allure of something that is new is better. If a company implements computers into its business it will operate better. This can be a fallacy because the time and money invested may outweigh the benefit in some cases. Appeal to Pity- use pity to get someone to give you and advantage. I really need this A, or I'll be grounded Appeal to Popularity- something is popular so it must be better/true. These shoes are popular, so they must be better. Appeal to Ridicule- using ridicule to make something false. Give to the school? Sure, when pigs can fly. Appeal to Spite- when spite is used instead of evidence. Bill: "I think thats a good idea!" George: "Have you forgotten that she messed it up last time?" Appeal to Tradition- because something has been always been done one way it must be true/better. We have always done this so it has to be the best way Bandwagon- a trend that gains popular support. These new shoes are cool and everyone is getting them. Begging the Question- assuring someone that something is true without evidence. I assure you I'm trustworthy. Biased Sample- using a small sample to assume that it pertains to all elements of that sample. 50% of people in DC bike to work so 50% of all people bike to work. Burden of Proof- you cant prove that something is false so it has to be true. How do you know god exists? No one can prove that he doesn't. Circumstantial Ad Hominem- saying someone isn't right because there position requires them to hold that view. Of course your against drinking your the head of the AAA meeting. Composition- parts of something have certain elements so the whole part must have the same elements. You like potatoes and pudding so you must like potato pudding Confusing Cause and Effect- when two things generally occur together so if one is happening the other must happen. Depression can cause sickness, so all sick people have to be depressed Division- the whole has certain aspects so every part of it must have those aspects. The ball is blue so all the atoms in a ball are blue. False Dilemma- something is either true or false, if its not false it must be true. If your not a vegetarian you like beef. Gambler's Fallacy- something that has been occurring a lot lately is bound to stop happening, or vice versa. Its about time I won so I'm going to bet, Genetic Fallacy- the credibility of something is only based off the objects past. He is going to be an alcoholic, because his parents where alcoholics. Guilt By Association- choosing a side because you don't like a person thats on the other side. Even though that team looks good I will go to this team cause they have Steven Fleming on there team. Hasty Generalization- a certain amount of people who are sampled are generalized. Sally hates men because one of her boyfriends was a jerk to her. Ignoring A Common Cause one things is caused by the other because they are usually associated with each other. I woke up with a fever then i got red spots. So the fever must have caused the spots. Misleading Vividness – because something rare happens you have a preconceived notion about it. Ex: the terrorists hijacked a plane so people stopped flying. Personal Attack- using knowledge about someone to discredit them or harm their reputation. Ex: political smear commercials. Poisoning the Well - an attempt to discredit a person by slander so the person in question has no credibility. Ex: don’t date her; I heard she’s a cheater. Post Hoc- when someone believes that a certain action will always have the same result. Ex: when a tornado appears there is always hail. Questionable Cause- when one thing happens this should happen right after it. Ex: when a person gets cancer they die shortly afterwards. Red Herring- when discussing one topic and jumping to a similar topic without ever going back to the original. Ex: a store has a sale on a product but hopes that people will buy more than just that. Relativist Fallacy- to argue about something because it doesn’t apply to everyone. Ex: some health people don’t exercise so those people must think that exercise isn’t important. Slippery Slope- a belief that when one thing happens another should follow like a domino effect. Ex: the earth is running low on gas so the price of gas should rise. Special Pleading- when people hold someone else to a certain standard and think themselves exempt. Ex: a cop believing that because he is a cop that they are above the law. Spotlight- to think that everyone in a certain group behave the same as one person in the group. Ex: there is a lot of crime in New York so I don’t want to go there. Straw Man- to create a false position to draw attention from one party.
Ad Hominem - attacking someone’s character rather than answering his question Ex: A good portion of political debate is spent avoiding the issues presented by attacking the opposition.
Ad Hominem Tu Quoque - to draw a conclusion which is not supported by the grounds of the argument Ex: Attacking someone’s inconsistency or hypocrisy instead of addressing the subject of the argument.
Appeal to Authority – making a claim as if an authority on the subject Ex: Many students at this school claim they know a lot more about computers than they actually do.
Appeal to Belief – just because many people believe something is true makes it true Ex: Most urban legends are perpetuated because so many people believe them to be true.
Appeal to Common Practice – the fact that many people do something in particular makes it right or okay Ex: Most people speed because everyone else does and that makes it okay.
Appeal to Consequences of a Belief – believing in something makes it true and not believing in it would have negative effects Ex: One has to believe that God is real, or they will not go to heaven.
Appeal to Emotion – getting people’s emotions fired up to get them to agree with the subject Ex: Political rallies rile the audience to the point where they either support or don’t support the speaker’s ideas.
Appeal to Fear – creating a fear of a subject to elicit support in the opposite Ex: If you don’t believe in God, you will go to hell.
Appeal to Flattery – using flattery to get someone to agree with you Ex: “Mom, that was a wonderful meal. Now, can I stay out past curfew?”
Appeal to Novelty – something new is automatically better Ex: Vista is better than XP, simply because it is newer.
Appeal to Pity – creating pity to get someone to agree with you Ex: Someone has had a rough life, really needs a job but isn’t qualified, and they still get the job because the employer feels sorry for them.
Appeal to Popularity – since everyone else seems to like something, it must be a good thing Ex: Lots of people seem to be buying Macs, so they must be really good computers.
Appeal to Ridicule – mocking someone or something to sway opinion Ex: Political cartoons often make fun of the physical attributes of a person to make them less believable
Appeal to Spite – generating spite to sway an opinion Ex: Reminding someone of something bad a person did in the past to get them to feel differently about that person.
Appeal to Tradition – assuming something is good or right simply because it has always been done that way Ex: The exorbitant salaries of some government officials have not been challenged because they have always been like that and no on (at least no one directly involved) sees fit to change them.
Bandwagon – peer pressure Ex: Agreeing with your peers merely to gain acceptance.
Begging the Question – circular reasoning Ex: The reason given for a statement is merely the rewording of the statement.
Biased Sample – drawing a conclusion based on a biased sample Ex: Doing research on the states policies on education but only polling only students.
Burden of Proof – something cannot be proven false, so it must then be true Ex: Aliens exist because no one has been able to prove they don’t.
Circumstantial Ad Hominem – claiming something is true simply to support your own cause Ex: Politicians often say their opponents make statements merely because it will help them gain support.
Composition – parts of something are true therefore the whole must be as well. Ex: Domestic cats make great house pets. Therefore, all cats must make good house pets.
Confusing Cause and Effect – assuming one event caused another just because they happened together Ex: I always get a headache before a storm. Therefore, my headaches are the cause of the storm.
Division – what is true of a whole must also be true of its parts Ex; Water is a liquid. Therefore, hydrogen and oxygen must be liquids as well.
False Dilemma – in a choice, one option is true simply because the other is false Ex: You are either for us, or against us.
Gambler's Fallacy – assuming a change from the norm will be corrected in the short term Ex: Someone who has had continuous bad luck will win the lotto.
Genetic Fallacy – the origin of a statement gives credit to the statement Ex: Your doctor tells you smoking isn’t bad for you.
Guilt By Association – rejecting an idea simply because you dislike someone who supports it Ex: I don’t agree with pro-choice laws simply because I don’t care for Obama.
Hasty Generalization – basing a conclusion on a sample that is too small Ex: Someone with California license plates cuts you off. Therefore, all California drivers are inconsiderate.
Ignoring A Common Cause – assuming one thing caused another, when a third thing caused them both Ex: My child woke up with a fever and then later was covered with spots. The fever must have caused the spots, not a virus.
Middle Ground – the middle of something is better than either of the extremes Ex: Moderation is always better than too much or not enough.
Misleading Vividness – dramatic events outweigh statistical events Ex: A friend bought a Ford and it broke down and caught on fire, so I would never buy a Ford.
Personal Attack – attacking the person making the claim and not the claim itself Ex: The president stutters so he must be a fool and we shouldn’t listen to him.
Poisoning the Well – discrediting someone by presenting unfavorable information Ex: Before beginning a new class, you friend tells you the teacher is unfair.
Post Hoc – A occurs before B, so A must be the cause of B Ex: I got a haircut before I got hired at a new job. Therefore, my haircut is what got me the job.
Questionable Cause – two things are often associated so one must cause the other Ex: Lightning and rain often occur together, so the lightning must be the cause of the rain.
Red Herring – changing the subject to avoid the original issue Ex: You are confronted for doing something wrong and you point out something that a sibling has done.
Relativist Fallacy – rejecting something as wholly false simply because it does not apply to yourself Ex: Some believe that going to church makes you a better person. This is not true for me, so going to church has no benefits.
Slippery Slope – something will inevitably follow something else Ex: If you give someone a chance, they will take advantage and walk all over you.
Special Pleading – apply rules or standards but not including yourself in them Ex: Beds must be made every day, but I was too tired to do it today so I didn’t.
Spotlight – assuming that all of one thing are the same simply because of the media representation Ex: All of California is full of smog and crime because that is all the media ever shows.
Straw Man – substituting a false version of something and then attacking the false version Ex: Stating that someone supports something and then attacking that view.
Ad Hominem – Attacking the person’s character for sake of the argument.
Ex: “I am Pro-choice and I also believe in gay marriage.”
“I’m not surprised, considering you are an anthiest.”
Ad Hominem Tu Quoque – An accusation of hypocrisy.
Ex: Rob Reiner rallies constantly to ban cigarettes and the use of because it’s an “unhealthy” habit, but makes no comment on him being very overweight.
Appeal to Authority – When a person of authority deems something true solely for the purpose of their position.
Ex: “Of course I’m telling the truth. I’m a cop.”
Appeal to Belief – Something is claimed true because a lot of people agree with it.
Ex: ”Irregardless” is not a word, no matter how many people you hear saying it.
Appeal to Common Practice – Something is true, because it’s common.
Ex: “Most people do it, therefore it’s the right thing to do!”
Appeal to Consequences of a Belief - Agreeing with something based on the consequences agreement will yield.
Ex: “If I say ‘yes’, will you leave me alone?”
Appeal to Emotion – An argument is made based on manipulating feelings instead of acknowledging common sense & reasoning.
Ex: “Mom, he pushed me in the dirt! *cries and sobs*”
“There is no dirt!”
Appeal to Fear – Appeal to emotion by using fear and causing resent to the opposition.
Ex: “If you are gay, you will go to hell and burn for all eternity!”
“What?!”
Appeal to Flattery – Appeal to emotion by using flattery to gain support.
Ex: “I’m sure that a man as handsome and suave as yourself wouldn’t been seen without one of these bad boys.”
Appeal to Novelty – A proposal is claimed superior because of its newness.
Ex: Some people are obsessed with having the newest cell phone model. Just because it has more features, doesn’t mean it’s “better”.
Appeal to Pity – An appeal to emotion based on manipulating emotions to make one feel pity towards the other.
Ex: “If you don’t buy me a that dress, I’ll be so unpopular and everyone will hate me.”
Appeal to Popularity – Because it’s favorable by most, it’s true.
Ex: “The ‘N’ can only be said by people who are black.”
Appeal to Ridicule – Appeal to emotion where an argument is made by making the opponent’s argument look ridiculous in comparison.
Ex: “If man has evolved from apes, then why do apes still exist? A coincidence? I think not!” ~__~;
Appeal to Spite – Appeal to emotion where an argument is made by the exploitation of bitter emotions towards the opposition.
Ex: “James, remember how angry you felt when she cheated on you before? There’s no way she’s telling the truth!”
Appeal to Tradition – A thesis is deemed correct on the basis that it has a timeless tradition behind it.
Ex: “Of course Santa Claus is real, we’ve been leaving cookies for him for years!.”
Bandwagon – Doing it because everyone else is. ☺
Ex: Eveyone else has one, so I bought one too.
Begging the Question – Because A is true B is true. How is A true? Because B is.
Ex: “Beyonce must be a great singer, because everyone has her records.”
Biased Sample – It works for some, so it must work for everyone.
Ex: “Out of the 10 kids surveyed, only 2 like broccoli. Therefore, only 20% of the children population likes broccoli.”
Burden of Proof – If you can’t see it, it’s not there.
Ex: The belief of atheism is based on the lack of “proof” of a higher power.
Circumstantial Ad Hominem – An argument is made based on accusing one’s claims are made of out self-interest.
Ex: “Marijuana should be legal, because it helps with glaucoma.”
“Whatever, you just wanna get high.”
Composition – Assuming all of a whole is true because part of it is.
Ex: “One doesn’t have to eat the whole cake to know it’s good.”
Confusing Cause and Effect – Because A and B always occur together, A is the cause of B.
Ex: “Whenever I go to Cedar Point, it rains. Maybe I’m the cause of it!”
Division – If it looks like a duck, walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it’s a duck.
Ex: “The outside of the house is beautiful, so I know the inside must be gorgeous!”
False Dilemma – There are many options to a problem, but only two are considered.
Ex: “You can either chip in for gas, or walk all the way to school.”
“Or, I could just ask someone else or take a bus.”
Gambler's Fallacy – The belief that the outcome of a random event can be affected or predicted by others.
Ex: “Okay, the coin has landed heads-up 10 times already, so next time it will definitely be tails!”
Genetic Fallacy – Conclusions made solely on someone/thing’s origin instead of its current meaning.
Ex: “Pink is for girls!”
“Hey, it’s just a color. Besides, real men wear pink!”
Guilt By Association – Birds of a feather, flock together.
Ex: ”I know you drank at that party, because everyone else was drinking!”
Hasty Generalization – Coming too quickly to a conclusion based on just a few facts that are true.
Ex: “Because most losers do drugs, if you do drugs, you are a loser.”
Ignoring A Common Cause – Even with the possibility of X, because A and B are associated together, A is the cause of B.
Ex: Most AIDS victims ignore the symptoms because they’re similar to the common cold.
Middle Ground – Insisting a compromise between two positions is correct.
Ex: Some people believe that abortion is wrong, except in the case of rape or incest.
Misleading Vividness – Believing something is bad, just because of a bad experience.
Ex: “I hate cats because I got scratched by one once.”
Personal Attack – Because of A’s character, what they say is not true.
Ex: “I can’t believe what you say, you’re an ex-con!”
Poisoning the Well – Discouraging belief in the opposing side’s story before its heard.
Ex: “Trust me, you won’t be interested in anything hey have to say.”t
Post Hoc – “B” occurs after “A”, therefore “A” caused “B”.
Ex: “The vending machine broke right after he used it, therefore he broke the vending machine!”
Questionable Cause – Even if there’s a possibility of something else happening, because A and B are associated together, A is the cause of B.
Ex: “Most people with HIV dismiss the disease as just a common cold because the symptoms are similar.”
Red Herring – An argument given in response to another that does not address the original issue.
Ex: “Did you eat the last cookie?”
“Cookies are so delicious. Delicious sounds like ‘deciduous’. A ‘deciduous’ is a type of tree. Paper is made of trees…
Relativist Fallacy – A claim can be rejected because it does not apply to them.
Ex: “Let’s go shopping! All girls love to shop!”
“That’s true for only most girls.”
Slippery Slope – Proposing that an action will start a change of events.
Ex: “If we lower the drinking age to 18, there will be more drunk driving, therefore more deaths on the road!”
Special Pleading – To cite something as a general rule or principle, without justifying the examption.
Ex: “I can’t throw these out, I might need them!”
“How do you know, you’ve never needed them before!”
Spotlight – When a person assumes something is true, based on what has been getting the most attention.
Ex: ”After that crazy girl on the MARTA, I will never take that train if I go to Atlanta.”
Straw Man – An argument based on the misrepresentation of an opponents position.
Ex: “I really like that song ‘Numb’ by Linkin Park.”
“Only whiny Emo kids listen to Linkin Park.”
Ad Hominem- Instead of attacking a certain situation, a person who supports/opposes the situation is attacked instead.
Ad Hominem Tu Quoque- Telling someone that smoking is bad, and then lighting one up right afterwards.
Appeal to Belief- A poll says that Clinton would have made a better President, so it must be true. Even though, noone really knows.
Appeal to Fear- Someone wanting a promotion and telling their boss that you mom is their boss, so be careful who you select for the position.
Bandwagon- Changing your beliefs because your friends dont believe the same thing.
Burden of Proof- Someone saying that you cant prove ghosts dont exists, so they must be real.
False Dilemma- If both claims could be false, then it cannot be inferred that one is true because the other is false.
Middle Ground- Someone selling their computer for $800 and getting an offer for $1. It wouldnt make sense to let the computer sell for $400.
Straw Man- Attacking a distorted version of a position simply does not constitute an attack on the position itself.
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